Mrauk U: The Burmese ministry of culture has reportedly included the ancient cities of Danyawady and Vesali in Arakan State in its official recognition of five more sites in the country as official archaeological sites.

The official Burmese language newspaper, Kyemone, reported in its publication on 10th May that the cultural ministry has zoned and recognized those five ancient sites in the country as “Ancient Site Zone” and “Protected and Preserved Zone”with effect on 9th May 2012.

The five sites include Danyawady Ancient City in Kyauktaw Township and Vesali Ancient City in Mrauk-U Township in Arakan State, Myaungmya Ancient City in Myaungmya Township in Irrawaddy Division, Thargaya Ancient City in Launglone Township in Taninthari Division and Amyintywa and Thonepanhla (Anitywa) Region in Chaung-Oo Township in Sagaing Division.

The cultural ministry stated that it would preserve and protect the ancient cultural heritages in those zones with the enacted laws.

“It is good to have taken these steps for these ancient heritages. Mrauk-U was recognized in 2009 and now Danyawady and Vesali are also recognized as official archaeological sites. We welcome these steps taken by the government for our cultural heritage sites”, said U Kyaw Tun Aung, a retired Archaeologist and Curator of the Ancient Cultural Museum in Mrauk-U.

He said the ancient cultural heritages in those sites would be preserved and protected by the state following the recognitions.

“Danyawady and Vesali are the earliest cities in Arakanese history. The Danyawady is the oldest because it was founded in 3325 BCE. Now the state has recognized them as ancient site zones in order to ensure the protection and preservation of them”, he said.

The Vesali City Site is situated between the Waetharli and Thanlarwady Villages in Mrauk-U Township and the Danyawady City Site is situated near the Maharmuni Village in Kyauktaw Township.

It is said in the newspaper that the creation of a land plot, construction of road, digging of irrigations and ponds, setting up lampposts and antennas and mining are not allowed on the ancient zones recognized by the cultural ministry.

Such activities on the zones are restricted by the Cultural Heritage Protection Law enacted in 1998, and any violations of the law will be prosecuted, said the newspapers citing the cultural ministry.

Narinjara has contacted to the Department of Archaeology, National Museum and Library in Mrauk-U over telephone regarding to the official recognition of ancient zones in the area, but the phone calls were not answered by the department.

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http://www.narinjara.com

By U SAN THA AUNG

The Cities of Dhanyawadi and Vesali

Location

The capital cities of the former kingdom of Arakan, may be devided into two groups: one group comprising those cities situated in the Kaladan Valley and the other, those of the Lemro Valley. Mrauk- Oo (Mrohaung), the last of the Royal Capitals of Arakan is unique, because it occupies a narrow valley in the hills between the Lemro and the Kaladan rivers. Commanding the only big gap between the two valleys, the city exerted control over both those valleys which were easily accessible by means of streams and roads.

However, since our present concern is with the Arakan of the period before 1000 A.D., we shall be dealing only with the cities of the Kaladan Valley. Of these, the most important by far are the cities of Dhanyawadi and Vesali, both located just west of the ridge which lies between the Kaladan and the Lemro rivers. The sites of these cities are about 16 miles apart, but both were built on the welldrained foothill area of the ridge, with their backs against the ridge. As a matter of fact, the eastern wall of Vesali is built on the ridge itself. The ridge is 1200 feet high behind Dhanyawadi, but decreases in height towards the south. Behind Vesali it is 400 feet high.



Dhanyawadi

Dhanyawadi (Lat, 20˚ 52' N., Long 93˚ 3' E.) is located 6 miles east of the Kaladan river, and about 60 miles up-river from its mouth at Akyab. The city site is about 16 miles north of Vesali, and some 21 miles north of Mrauk-Oo (Mrohaung). See Map III. The city is backed up against the ridge which separates the Kaladan valley from the Lemro valley. The remains show that there was an outer and an inner city. Parts of the walls and the moats can still be seen in many places. The modern village of Thayettabin lies in the southwestern part of the outer city, and the Mahamuni Shrine lies in the southwestern of the inner city. See picture. Go The old city was of fairly of the ridge. On the western side only a small portion of the outer tributary of the Kaladan. The chaung may have once formed the moat on the west. The remaining parts of the former moat have been silted over and have become paddy fields.

The inner city was the site of the Palace. Royalty and officialdom resided within the inner city. The common people occupied the outer city whose walls also enclosed the fields which they cultivated. The area of the inner city was only 64 acres. In those days of insecurity, when the country was often subject to raids by various hill tribes, the people felt safer within the walls. By enclosing the paddy fields, the people would have an assured food supply even under siege, thus permitting them to withstand the siege.

Dhanyawadi was built at a time when only the upper Kaladan was above high water level. To the south, below the latitude of Mrauk-Oo (Mrohaung), the country was still one vast area of mangrove swamps. Only the edges of the islands were then reclaimed for cultivation. Small sailing ships could come right up the Thare Chaung to the city. Indian influences penetrated into the city by sea and by land.

According to local chronicles, this Dhanyawadi is the third Dhanyawadi I have mentioned in Chapter II, and it is supposed to have been the Capital of Arakan from the 6th century B.C. to 788 A.D. Dr. E.H. Jonston. however, after deciphering Anandacandra inscription of Shitthaung Pagoda which is situated in Mrauk-Oo, dated the founding of Vesali as 350 A.D. Dr. Sircar of the Indian Archaeoligical Survey also aggress with Dr. Johnston, in differing from the local chronicles, and he has suggested the date of the founding of Vesali to be about 370 A.D. If we are to accept these dates, then Dhanyawadi was the Capital of Arakan up to 350 or 370 A.D.

Dhanyawadi controlled the Kaladan Valley and also the Mayu Valley on the west. At that time the Lemro had probably not as yet was then in all probability occupited by hill tribes. Even in the lower Lemro valley, the flood plain was mainly to be found on the western side, the hills reaching the river along most of the eastern bank.

Vesali

Vesali (Lat: 20˚ 40' N. Long. 93˚ 9'E.) lies 16 miles south of Dhanyawadi. See Map III. It has on its western flank the Rann Chaung a tributary of the Kaladan, and on its eastern side, the ridge which separates the Kaladan Valley from the Lemro Valley. The shape of the city is rather unusual since the walls were built in such a way as to obtain the fullest advantage of the well-drained land to be found in the foothill zone. The shape is somewhat oval, the north and east running in more or less straight lines, while the walls on the south and the west are curved. See Map V and Plate 8. A tributary of the Rann chaung now traverses the city site. According to the local chronicles, the city's full name is “Vesali, the city with the stone stairs”. These stone stairs led to the pier where sailing ships must have docked in those days. Remains of those stone stairs leading to the pier can still be seen at ebb-tide, on the northwest of the city.

The north-south diameter of the outer walls at the widest part is nearly 10,000 feet, while the east-west diameter is only about 6,500 feet at the widest. The area of the city is about 2.7 square miles, very definitely larger then Dhanyawadi. Like Dhanyawadi, Vesali also has a smaller inner city: the palace site. It is rectangular in shape with a length of 1500 feet and a width of 1000 feet. A moat surrounds the walls of this inner city.

Vesali, a bigger city, was even more secure then Dhanyawadi with the population tilling their fields inside the city walls. It is noteworthy that Vesali, lying further south, was even more open to western influence. According to local chronicles, Vesali was the capital of Arakan from 788 to 957 A.D. when conditions became unsettled. Actually it continued as the capital till 1018 A.D. under those unsettled conditions. According to Johnston and Sircar, Vesali was founded even earlier then the date given in the local chronicles; they give the date as 350 or 370 A.D. In any case, Vesali was a larger and more thriving port than Dhanyawadi.

Both the cities of Dhanyawadi and Vesadi being built on the well-drained foothill area of the ridge which lies between the Kaladan and the Lemro rivers, are well preserved from the ravages of the rivers. Many and varied antique pieces have been found from these two places from time to time. Systematic excavation of these images shown in this book were obtained from the relic chambers of ruined pagodas situated in these places.

Two thousand five hundred years have passed since the time of parinirvana of Gautama Buddha. Throughout the centuries, ever since the introduction of Buddhism up to the present time, Arakanese professed Buddhism without break.

The present-day Buddhism in Arakan is the Theravada Buddhism using the Pali canon of Tripitaka which are Vinaya (conduct), Sutta (Sermon) and Abhidhamma (a mixture of metaphysics, psychology and mind development) Pitakas.

The Buddhist’s here worshipped caityas and stupas. They believed that one can acquire great merit by building and decorating them. The Buddha images are also worshipped after glorifying by conducting a ceremony called Anekasa, which is recitation by a number of monks surrounding the image.

The people worshipped these caityas, stupas and Buddhas images by offering flowers, food, incense, light and prayers. They believed these acts to be meritorious. They believed in the idea of the transfer of merit. That is, by making gifts one can acquire religious merits and one can also transfer such merits to one’s near and dear ones or their welfare and happiness. By performing meritorious deeds like offering alms and the four necessaries to the sanghas and giving charities to the poor and the needy, and doing good deeds personally or in words or in thoughts, one gains merit and will go to devas abode after death. Whereas by doing evil deeds or getting involved in evil acts personally or in words or in thoughts, one falls into a downward state of existence, a state of suffering or even to the abyss of hell such as Rauruwa, Avici etc., after death.

They believed in the three ways to salvation, i.e., the Arahatship, the Pratyekabuddhahood and the supreme Buddhahood. The lay people strived for Arahatship as the way to Nirvana. They accepted the idea that the universe is cyclic and that they live in a Buddha cycle called Bhadrakalpa and are expecting the coming of the fifth Buddha, Maitreya.

There are many members of the Buddhist Order, that is, the monks (sangha) who wear yellow robes and strictly observe the Vinaya pitaka. They have given up all the worldly pleasure and lived a pure life striving to attain Nirvana.

The lay people have noviciating ceremonies for boys who spend sometimes, usually a week or more, in a monastery under the guidance of a revered abbot to experience the life of the monkhood. During his stay in the monastery as a monk, the boy learns for himself the religion of his parents, the abbot guiding him of course. If he likes the life of a monk and wants to forego the worldly pleasures, he can become a monk for life. But he will be qualified for full membership of the Order only after attaining the age of twenty. If not, this ceremony can be taken as a preparation for adult life. In Arakan State, unlike Burma proper, the noviciating of a boy is done only when the boy reaches an age when he can understand and assimilate Buddha’s teaching.

Especially during the period of Wasoe (Buddhist lent which falls during rainy season), people used to keep Sabbath taking five, eight, nine or ten precepts. People in more advance stage of piousness used to meditate to free themselves from ten “fetters”, i.e., Samyojana.

Such are the beliefs and practices of present-day Buddhists of Arakan State.

The same is true for the past centuries. To state very briefly, the historical periods of Arakan may be divided into the following dynasties.



1. Dhanyawadi (? – 370 A.D) (According to our historians, Dhanyawadi came to existence since about 3,000 B.C)

2. Vesali (370 – 994 A.D)

3. Sambawak or Pyimsa (1018 – 1118 A.D)

4. Parein (1118 – 1142 A.D)

5. Khrait (1142 – 1250 A.D)

6. Launggrat (1250 – 1404 A.D)

7. Mrauk_Oo (1430 – 1784 A.D)

One can travel to Arakan and see for oneself numerous Caityas (pagodas), Stupas and innumerable Buddha images built and made by the kings of these dynasties. Especially the town of Mrauk_Oo (former Mrauk_Oo city), being the last of the Arakanese capitals, is rich in these religious edifices and images.

From the inscriptions and palm-leaf manuscripts, we can find that the kings used to choose the way to Nirvana by desiring to become a Supreme Buddha, the first step of which is the Bodhisattvahood. In our literature, when a king died, he was not mentioned as dead, but mentioned as went to the abode of devas. We can read many descriptions of this kind in the Anandacandra inscription, inscribed about 729 A.D. Since Bodhisattva in advanced stage used to reside in the abode of devas, it is natural that the kings should go there after their death. As the king promised to look after the welfare of all the people in his dominion during the abhesika ceremony, it is only natural that he should not strive to attain Nirvana alone. He should also help his subjects attain Nirvana. So he should aim to become a Bodhisattva.
I have shown in this book miniature stupas, miniature caityas, bronze bells, bronze lamps and many types of bronze Buddha images, crowned and uncrowned. These were obtained from the relic chambers of the old ruined caityas and stupas. They belong to the period of Dhanyawadi and Vesali.

When Buddhism did first introduced into Arakan? And what type of Buddhism was that?
According to tradition and our historical annals, Buddhism was introduced into Arakan during the life-time of Buddha himself. Keeping tradition part, let us search for concrete evidences which will give us at least the upper limit for the period of introduction and the type of Buddhism introduced.

I have mentioned in Chapter IV that we have found one Fat Monk image with a line of inscription in Brahmi script used about the beginning of the Christian era. This Fat Monk, Saccakaparibajaka, was related to an incident in Buddha’s life. Images of Buddha were also found together with this image. As there were no inscriptions nor dates inscribed on them, it is difficult to assign them to the same period as the Fat Monk.

Apart from this image, we can search for more concrete evidences. We may take the miniature stone stupas with Ye dharma verses on them, the stones with Ye dharma verses fallen out of the ruined stupas or caityas, and the inscription found on one of the Mahamuni sculptures as the solid evidence for dating the upper limit of the introduction of Buddhism in Arakan. The dating can be done palaeographically and these writings can be assigned to some time about the 4th or the 5th century A.D.

I have explained the Ye dharma verse and mentioned that it reveals the cream of the teaching of the Buddha. See Chapter V. It is very clear that the people who made these stupas and who inscribed the Ye dharma verses for the posterity professed the type of Buddhism based on the teaching of the Buddha and not on the personality of the Buddha. Again, the word Mahasramana in the verse means the Great Monk. By using this word, it is clear that the Buddha was referred to as a Great Monk and not as a God. Again in Chapter XI we have seen a ceti dedicatory inscription from eighth century Vesali. The inscription mentioned one to purify his own mind to attain nirvana. The three impurities, lobha, dosa and moha should be discarded revealing that the Buddhism practiced at that time was based on the teachings of Buddha. Therefore, we can definitely say that the Buddhism that flourished during this period was not Tantric Buddhism nor the advanced Mahayana with plenty of Gods and Goddesses.

We can infer that the Tantric Buddhism, which is an advanced state of Mahayana Buddhism, never flourished in Arakan. Even in India, this type of Buddhism became popular only after the 8th century A.D. According to scholars studying Indian Buddhist Iconography, the monks who professed Tantric Buddhism in Bengal fled to Nepal, instead of Arakan which was more easily accessible, during the Muslim invasion. This definitely proved that there was no ground for them to flourish in Arakan and the Arakanese never accepted the Tantric Buddhism.

A substantial amount of Buddhist Art which may be assigned to this earliest period belongs to the stone sculptures of the Mahamuni Shrine. The relief sculpture found on the Selargiri Hill representing Buddha preaching King Candasuriya also belongs to this period. This is the period of the famous Candra dynasty mentioned in Anandacandra inscription of Shitthaung Pagoda, Mrohaung. (See Picture. Go)

The Mahamuni sculptures are varied and many. If one does not study the Buddhism prevailing in the country at the period of making these sculptures, one may presume these to be the Gods and Goddesses of the Tantric Buddhism. That is why these sculptures are described in the last chapter of the book after discussing about the various aspects of Buddhism and the type of Buddhism flourishing in Arakan at that time.


http://arakanlibrary.tripod.com/BuddhisminArakan

By U SAN THA AUNG

REFERENCES

1) Ali, S.M. “Arakan Rule in Chittagong (1550 – 1666 A.D)” JASP (1967) pp. 333 – 351.

2) Bapat, P.V. 2500 Years of Buddhism, New Delhi, 1976.

3) Basham, A.L. The Wonder that was India, Lodon, Fontana, 1967.

4) Benerji, R.D. Eastern Indian School of Mediaeval Sculpture, Delhi, 1933.

5) Bernot, L. Les Paysans Arakanais due Pakistan Orientale, 2 vols., Paris 1967.

6) Bhattacharrya, B. The Indian Buddhist Iconography, Calcutta, 1958.

7) Bhattasali, N.K. Iconography of Buddhist and Brahamanical Sculptures in the Dacca Museum, Dacca, 1929.

8) Buler, G. “Specimens of Jaina Sculpture from Mathura” E.I. II, p. 314.

9) Chan Htwan Oung “The Mahamuni Shrine in Arakan,” JBRS, II, (1912) pp. 262 – 265.

10) Coomaraswamy, A.K. “The Buddha’s Cuda, Hair, Usnisa and Crown”, JRAS (1928) pp. 815 – 840.

11) Dani, A.H. Indian Palaeography, Oxford, 1963.

12) Dani, A.H, “Mainamati Plates of the Chandras” Pakistan Archaeology, III (1969) pp. 22 – 55.

13) Doewai, Rakhaing Razawingri, (Burmese), Palm – leaf manuscript.

14) Forchhammer, E. Papers on Subjects Relating to the Archaeology of Burma: Arakan, Rangoon, 1891.

15) Foucher, A. The Beginnings of Buddhist Art, Paris, 1917.

16) Gutman P. Ancient Arakan, Ph. D Thesis, Australian National University, 1976, Unpublished.

17) Hall, D.G.E. “Studies in Dutch Relations with Arakan,” JBRS, XXVI (1937) pp. 1 – 10.

18) Harvey, G.E. History of Burma, London, 1925.

19) Humphrey, C. Buddihism, London, Penguin Books, 1975.

20) Johnston, E.H. “Some Sanskrit Inscriptions of Arakan,” BSOAS XI (1944) pp. 375 – 385.

21) Kyeethelayhtat Sayadaw, Jinatthapakasani, 4 Vols, (Burmese), Rangoon, 1951.

22) Luce, G.H. Old Burma-Early Pagan, 3 Vols, New York, 1969.

23) Mai, U Rajawingri, (Burmese), Palm – leaf Manuscript.

24) Mya, U “A note on the Buddha’s Footprints in Burma”, ASI, (1930 – 34) pt. 2. pp. 320 – 331.

25) Nyanatiloka, The Word of the Buddha, Colombo, 1952.

26) Ojha, G.M. Bharatiya Pracina Lipi Mala, New Delhi, 1918.

27) Phayre, A.H. “An Account of Arakan” JASB, X (1841) pp. 679 – 711.

28) Phayre, A.H. “On the History of Arakan”, JASB, XIII (1844) pp. 23 – 52.

29) Ray, N. Sanskrit Buddhism in Burma, Calcutta, 1936.

30) San Shwe Bu, “The Legend of the Early Aryan Settlement of Arakan, JBRS, XI, 2, p.66.

31) San Shwe Bu , “The History of Arakan”, JBRS, XII, 3, p. 167.

32) San Shwe Bu, “The Story of Mahamuni”, JBRS, VI (1916) pp. 226 -229.

33) San Tha Aung Scripts of Arakan, 6th Century and before, (Burmese), Rangoon, 1974.

34) San Tha Aung, Anandacandra, King of 8th Century Vesali, Arakan, (Burmese), Rangoon, 1975.

35) Shah, U.P. Iconography: Jaina Art, and Architecture, Vol. III, New Delhi, 1975, p. 492

36) Smith, V.A. The Early History of India, Oxford, 1924.

37) Sircar, D.C. “Inscriptians Copper-Plate Grant from Arakan”, EI, XXXVII (1957), pp. 103 -109.

38) Sircar, D.C. “Fragmentary Copper-Plate Grant from Arakan”, EI, XXXVII (1967), pp. 61 – 66.

39) Sivaramamurti, C. Indian Epigraphy and South Indian Scripts, Madras, 1952.

40) Thin Kyi Daw “Arakanese Capitals: A preliminary Survey of their Geographical Setting, JBRS, LIII (1970) pp. 1-14.





The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan


A BBREVIATIONS

BSOAS = Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, London.

EI = Epigraphia Indica.

JASB = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta.

JBRS = Journal of the Burma Research Society, Rangoon.

JRAS = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, London.

JASP = Journal of the Asiatic Society, Pakistan.

The places like Lumbini-Nepal, Bodh-GayaNorthern India, Sarnath, Varanasi-U.P. and KushinagarU.P. are the four noteworthy locations, where Gautama Buddha was born, gained enlightenment, preached his first sermons and at the age of 80 attained Nibbana. Indeed! These are the most sacred places in Nepal and India.

From the ancient Rakhine historical point of view, grandfather of Gautama Buddha Einzana (from his maternal side ), altered the ancient Kokethamin Era 8645 to 2 and the out coming era was called Maha Era or Einzana Era. Rakhine King Ralamaru, 2411 in the line of Kanrazagri or Kamaraza, founder of second Dhanyawady, also favoured the alteration made by Einzana. In that era, Gautama Buddha was born in 68 Maha (572 B.C.), renounced the world in 97 Maha (543 B.C.), gained enlightenment in 103 Maha (537 B.C.), and passed to Nibbana in 148 Maha (492 B.C.).

We learned from an article entitled " Review of the most ancient Rakhine " written by a learned scholar of the most ancient Rakhine History, U Sein Nyo Tun, I.C.S. (Retd.), that Candathuria the founder of 31 Dhanyawady, was also born in 72 Maha (563 B.C.), ascended to the Rakhine throne in 97 Maha ( 543 B.C. ), and died in 149 Maha or New Religious Era (491 B.C. ), one year after the Gautama Buddha's Parinibbana. In other sense, Gautama Buddha and Candathuria were contemporary to each other.

Moreover, we also learned that Gautama Buddha visited to Dhanyawady and preached King Candathuria in 123 Maha ( 517 B.C. ), after the 20`h monsoon retreat. At the same date, King Candathuria had cast a bronze image of Mahamuni (Christian dating system in use here is in accordance with the Vikram Sambat Calendar dates). As we all know that, for about forty-five years, Buddha and his disciples traveled from place to place (within Majjhima ), preaching to people of all works of life and the greatest Kings of the time favoured him and his disciples.

Incident of Buddha and Candathuria King of Dhanyawady:

Dr. Forchhammer a renowned archaeologist. wrote in his book entitled " ARAKAN " about a history of Mahamuni Shrine and the Sappadanapakarana, an ancient Rakhine manuscript of great value. According to this manuscript, Buddha with 500 disciples came to Dhanyawady by aerial journey. While sojourning in Dhanyawady, during Candathuria rule in 554 B.C. (revised 517 B.C. ). The Blessed One complied with the King's request for permission of casting an image of the Teacher. The King as well as his subjects offered " Nine-Kuti " worth of precious metal and in the presence of the Buddha, Mahamunithe exact likeness of the Buddha was cast.

Most of the Arakanese chronicle sources unanimously state that Buddhism, which had existed during the reign of King Sanda Suriya, who dedicated the illustrious Maha Muni Image in B.C. 554, has become the prime faith the phenomenon now called Buddhism in Arakan which began its gentle progress to farthest reached of the globe. Ancient Arakanese legendary gives detail accounts of King Sanda Suriya who endowed the great shrine Maha Muni on the occasion of Lord Buddha landing to Arakan in 123 Bowdaw Inzana Era, 25 years before Buddha's Mahaparinibbana. The Buddha visited to Arakan expressly to enable King Sanda Suriya to build a life-size image of himself and Buddha blessed on alighted on the top of Thelagiri Hill situated the east of Kyawtaw on the bank of Kaladan. The Buddha had parted His Holiness teeth emitted rays of light that shone forth with a dazzling vividness in all directions, and to the reverend Ananda, his beloved cousin. He blessed the wishful remarks: "Danyawaddy is great and splendid country which shall have ninety-nine towns on its eastern bank of the Gacchapanadi and ninety-nine towns on its western bank. Its kings shall continue to be the ancient Kshatriya stock and particularly our Sakya race has been descended from Ajjuna Hermit-King of Kapilavastu. As a Bodhisattva, I was reborn many a times here; I shall have in this noble country; my own image built that shall enclose in this land for 5000 years during the life of my Sasana or Buddhism".

Arakanese were justly claimed to be the first in Asia outside India to have heard the word of the Buddha that was too from his His Holiness lips. When the image was finished, it was established in Thiriguta Hill amidst universal rejoicing when gods and men could mingle freely to worship the great image of Maha Muni. How deeply intertwined the image of Maha Muni was in the heart of Arakanese might be gathered from the following classical passage in poem Arakanese Princess Egyin written by Badu Mong Nyo in 15th century. (Rakhine Princes E-Chun) (Stanza-9) Truly peculiar and noble indeed, That banner of king of king, Sadden elephant of snow-white variety Possessed while ruling Dynyawady, Golden Land, country complete with prosperity. The reign of Sanda Thuriya, generous monarch, Coincided with the life of the Buddha. Invited Him to Dynyawady with all his heart. Due to his request in earnest, Lord mercifully let him cast Maha Muni Image, now we have. Visukamma and Sikra Deva came to help. Alloy of five noble metals was used by them But they could not accomplished by then Only after the Buddha offered Seven Handfuls of His bodily warmth to the sculpture, Beloved Brother, His Holiness comes to life, As His representative exact, the image he left; Man, Deva and Brahma have a chance To worship Him in great respect. Great image was held in reverence. (Rahine Roma Magazine) Later Maha Muni, the great image of worship became symbols of an independent Arakan, has retained its deep spiritual vibration inspired countless beings to contemplate upon righteous way of life, higher principles to live for and noble ideas to aspire after, and the shrine itself has been the most focus of attention for millions of pilgrims throughout centuries. Its history supplemented by geographical, archaeological, and literacy sources of Arakan as well as travelers accounts had enlightened us, it is true. Information regarding early introduction of Buddhism in Arakan is from two sources; first from the archaeological discoveries and the second from the records of Arakanese literature. From archaeological evidence, we find a number of symbols that are of religious significance, special to Buddhism. Perhaps most importantly, there have been discovered several image stone figures.

An ancient stone inscription in Nagari character was discovered by renowned Archaeologist Dr. Forchhammer. Known as Salagiri, this hill was where the great teacher came to Arakan some two thousand five hundred years ago. Somewhere from eastern part of this hill, a stone image in Dhamma-cakra-mudra now kept in Mrauk-U museum, was found earlier in 1923. This relief sculpture found on the Salagiri Hill represents Buddha preaching King Canda Suriya belongs to 4th century A.D.; five more red sandstone slabs with the carving were found close by the south of this Salagiri Hill in 1986. They are the same type as the single slab found earlier in 1923. These carving slabs of Bhumispara-mudra, Kararuna-mudra, Dhammacakra-mudara, and Mmahaparinibbana-mudra represent the life of Buddha.

These sculptures provide earliest evident about the advent of Buddhism into Arakan; during the life time of the Buddha and these discoveries were therefore assumed as the figures of King Canda Suriya of Dyanawady, who dedicated the Great Maha Muni Image. These archaeological findings have been studied by eminent scholars and conclusion is that the Maha Muni was made during the king Sanda Suriya era.

In a 15th century Ayechann verse by Adoo Mong Nyo (a court bard of King 8a Saw Pru 1459-1482 A.D.) the casting of image is described thus:

"By the help of Visukarma The divine creative genius It was wrought - The present Mahamuni, When it could not be done With the hollow of the hand The Master gave Exactly seven times The precious metals: With the warmth of His Boson And behold The likeness of The Master appeared To be revered by Brahma, Devas and men The Gift of the Purest Of all hearts."

In time, the Mahamuni became renowned and pilgrims from far-off paid regular visits. This Mahamuni Image has been taken away from the soil of its origin and now enshrined at Mandalay still receives sacred allegiance from millions of South East Asian Buddhist devotees.

The History Of Dhanyawady (Rakkhapura) As Foretold By Gautama Buddha:

Gautama Buddha visited Dhanyawady with the object of leaving his Sasana as well as his Image, for he foresaw that the Sasana would get lost in India after his passing to Nibbana. On arrival at Thaylagiri, Kyauktaw Hill, Gautama Buddha related to Ananda, the history of the Rakhine Kingdom, in order that he may know in what kind of a country. He was leaving his Sasana as well as his Image.

Comments:

Some are of the opinion that Majjhima ends at the Rakhine Yomas. Since, after sojourning in Dhanyawady, Gautama Buddha proceeded as far as Tan-Gyi-Taung, the East Bank of the Irrawady ( Ayeyawady ) River, and from where predicted that the Tharay-khattara Kingdom will be formed in the opposite Bank in the future. We have to assume that Majjhima ends in the West Bank of the Irrawady ( Ayeyawady ) River.

Once Dr. Than Tun, M.A., BL., Ph.D. remarked in his Book entitled " An Old History of Burma ( Myanmar )", that Gautama Buddha had never been to outside Majjhima. It may be true and we can accept his remarked, but we should bear in mind that in ancient days, since Dhanyawady was included in the Majjhima we can accept our traditional belief of Gautama Buddha's visitation to Dhanyawady with clear conscious

References

1. 1. Antony Spaetu - A question of faith Time may 26, 1997 PP.42-48. 2. Banerji, R.D. -A Junior History of India. (Blackic & Son India) Ltd 3. Forchhammer, Dr. - "Arakan", Mahamuni Shrine and the Sappadanapaka-rana Manuscript. 4. Mayda Pinna - 81h Century Mayda Pinna Verse. 5. Sein Nyo Tun, U.I.C.S.Retd. - Review of the most ancient Rakhine History & History of Rakhine as foretold by Gautama Buddha. May 1966. 6. Shwe Zan, U - The Golden Mrauk-U, an ancient capital of Rakhine, PP. 154-155. 7. Than Tun, Dr.M.A., BL., Ph.D.- An Old History of Burma, 1969.



Buddhism in Arakan

Two thousand five hundred years have passed since the time of Parinivana of Gautama Buddha. Throughout the centuries, ever since the introducing of Buddhism up to the present time, Arakan professed Buddhism without break.

The present-day Buddhism in Arakan is the Theravada Buddhism using the Pali canon of Tripitaka which are vinaya (conduct), Sutta (Sermon) and Abhidhamma (a mixture of Metaphysics, psychology and mind development) Pitakas.

The Buddhists here worship caityas and stupas. They believe that one can acquire great merit by building and decorating them. The Buddha images are also worshipped after glorifying by conducting a ceremony called Anekasa, that is recitation by a number of monks surrounding the image.

The people worship these caityas, stupas and Buddha images by offering flowers, food, incense, light and prayers. They believe these acts to be meritorious. They believe in the idea of the transfer of merit. That is, by making gift one can acquire religious merits and one can also transfer such merits to one's near and dear ones or their welfare and happiness by performing meritorious deeds like offering alms and the four necessaries to the Sanghas and giving charities to the poor and the needy, and doing good deeds personally or in words or in thoughts, one gains merit and will go to devas abode after death. Where as by doing evil deeds or getting involved in evil acts personally or in words or in thoughts, one falls into downward state of existence, a state of suffering or even to the abyss of hell such as Aauruwa, Avici etc, ...after death.

They believe in the three ways to salvation, i.e., the Arahatship, the Pratyakabuddhahood and the supreme Buddhahood. The lay people strive for Arahatship as the way to Nirvana. They accept the idea that the universe is cyclic and that they live in a Buddha cycle called Bhadrakaipa and are expecting the coming of the fifth Buddha, Maitreya.

There are many members of the Buddhist Order, that is, the monks (Sangha) who wear yellow robes and strictly observe the Vinaya Pitaka. They have given up all the wordly pleasures and lived a pure life striving to attain Nirvana.

The lay people have noviciating ceremonies for boys who spend sometimes, usually a week or more in a monastery under the guidance of revered abbot to experience the life of the monkhood. During his stay in the monastery as a monk, the boy learns for himself the religion of his parents, the abbot guiding him of course. If he likes the life of a monk and wants to forego the worldly pleasures, he can become a monk for life. But he will be qualified for full membership of the Order only after attaining the age of twenty. If not this ceremony can be taken as a preparation for adult life. In Arakan, noviciating of a boy is done only when the boy reaches an age when he can understand and assimilate Buddha's teaching.

Especially during the period of Wasoe (Buddhist lent which falls during rainy season), people are accustomed to keep sabbath taking five, eight, nine or ten precepts. People in more advance stage of piousness mediate to free themselves from ten "fetters", i.e. Samyojana.

Such are the beliefs and practices of present day Buddhists of Arakan. The same is true for the past centuries.

Especially during the period of Wasoe (Buddhist lent which falls during rainy season), people are accustomed to keep sabbath taking five, eight, nine or ten precepts. People in more advance stage of piousness mediate to free themselves from ten "fetters", i.e. Samyojana.

Such are the beliefs and practices of present day Buddhists of Arakan. The same is true for the past centuries.

There are numerous caityas (pagodas), stupa and innumerable Buddha images built and made by the king of these dynasties. Especially Mrauk-U, the last capital city of Arakan, is rich in these religious edifices and images. Miniature stupas, miniature caityas, bronze bells, bronze lamps and many types of bronze Buddha images, crowned and uncrowned were obtained from the relic chambers of the old ruined caityas and stupas. They belong to the period of Danyawaddy and Vesali.



When did Buddhism first introduced into Arakan? And what type of Buddhism was that?

According to tradition and our historical annals, Buddhism was introduced into Arakan during the lifetime of Buddha himself. Keeping tradition part, let us search for concrete evidences which will give of Buddhism introduced.

We have found one Fat Monk image with a line of inscription in Brahmi script used about the beginning of the Christian era. This Fat Monk, Saccakaparibajaka, was related to an incident in Buddha's life. Images of Buddha were also found together with this image. As there were no inscriptions or dates inscribed on them, it is difficult to assign them to the same period as the Fat Monk.

Apart from this image we can search for more concrete evidences. We may take the miniature stone stupas with Ye Dharma verses on them, the stones with Ye Dharma verses fallen out of the ruined stupas or caityas, and inscription found on one of the Mahamuni sculptures as the solid evidence for dating the upper limit of the introduction of Buddhism in Arakan. The dating can be done palaeographically and these writing can be assigned to some time about the 4th or the 5th century AD.

As almost everybody knows, "Yedhama gahta" is the most popular inscription among the earliest records of Buddhism in Myanmar. In Rakhine the earliest" Yedhama gahta" was suggested to have issued in the fourth century A.D. This piece of work is an attempt to trace the Buddhism, in Rakhine, of the period before Yedhama.

The local chronicles traditionally say that during the reign of King Candrasuria in the Danyawaddy city Gotama Buddha, while visiting, converted the court and cast the image, Mahamyatmuni. According to this tradition Buddhism is supposed to be introduced to Rakhine since Buddha's lifetime in the sixth century B.C.

It was also in the Danyawaddy dynasty that Reverend Htayra Maha Yewata was said to have come to Mahinsaka manahala for conversation, after the third Samghayana was held at Pataliputta. Some consider that the present Rakhine was once part of Mahinsaka. However some scholars insist that Mahinsaka was at one time the same of Mysore at the southern part of India.

Above traditions hint that Buddhism came to Rakhine in the 6th century B.C, or 3rd century B.C respectively by means of missionary activities. However, may be unfortunately, no contemporary record is found relating to these traditions.

The crowing event in the history of Arakan was the Convention of the Buddhist Council at the top of golden hill of Vesali under the royal patronage of King Dhammawizaya in 638 AD. through joint effort of two countries, Arakan and Ceylon. This momentous triumph of the great council was participated by one thousand monks from Ceylon and one thousand monks from Arakan kingdom. As a fitting celebration of the occasion, the lavish construction of pagodas, statues and monasteries were undertaken for the purpose of inscribing the Tripitaka.



After Vesali, Pyinsa was found by Lemro dynasty in 818 A.D; Pyinsa City (818 - 1103), Parein City (1103 - 1160), Nareinsara Taungoo (1160 - 1250) and Laungret (1250 - 1430) the great king of dynasty was King Mim-Yin-Phru, who turned his attention towards the development of Buddhism, and in 847 A.D. he conveyed the second Buddhist council in Arakan attended by 800 Arahants. Arakanese chronicles report that therein the Tripitaka and Atthakatha were incribed on the golden plate and enshrined. Never has there been impediment in the practice of Theravada Buddhist faith since it has introduced in Arakan. The copious findings of inscription Ye Dhamma verse (gahta) were practical evidence that Theravada was dominant faith if epigraphic and archaeological sources were to be believed. The Royal patronage has always been significant factor contribution to stability and progress of the religion in Arakan.

An inscription discovered at Nagajunikonda in the Andra country of the southern India says…. For the benefit of the fraternities (of monks) of Tambapamna who had converted Kasmira, Gandhara, Cina, Cilata, Tosali, Avaramata, Vamya, Vanavasi, Yuvana (?) Damalia (?), Palura (?) and the Isle of Tambamni. (From Epigraphia India XX, p.p.22-23)

This record was inscribed in the 4th regional year of King Madhariputa. The scholars think this king seems to be identical with King Madhariputa Sri Virapurisadata of the Issvaku dynasty (3rd century A.D.)

Dr. Niharranjan Ray had attempted to identify the Cilata (Kirata) country with the regions of Rakhine and lower Burma (Myanmar). Besides there is a strong tradition that Kirata was a province of Burma as indicated by a bell inscription, though modern (viz.1811 A.D) at the Mahamuni pagoda, Mandalay (Middle area of Myanmar).

As Nagarjunikonda inscription was issued in the 3rd century A.D. The sending of the Buddhist mission must be some time before the 3rd century. If so it would not be far too wrong to conclude that Buddhism had already arrived at Rakhine in the 3rd century A.D. At this point the popular tradition, which says Buddhism came to Rakhine at the reign of King Candrasuria should be considered in the context of Phayre's suggestion of Candrasuria period in the 2nd century A.D.

Ray also suggest, even apart from the tradition of Asoka mission, it is not impossible to assert the prevalence of Buddhism in Burma sometime before the 3rd century A.D. However no indigenous evidence relating to this period is found in Rakhine. Only for the lack of such evidence, we should not consider that Buddhism did not come to Rakhine. Regarding this George Coedes's remark is worthy of note.

"Because of their geographical position it would seem that they ought to have been penetrated by Indian culture earlier and more profoundly than Funan, Champa, and the other kingdoms of father India, they offer, however, only rare and quite late archaeological and epigraphical remains for the period before the middle of the sixth century. It would be imprudent to conclude from this negative argument that they were Indianized later, for various circumstances may have caused the disappearance or delayed the discovery of order remains.The almost total silence of Chinese sources for the period in question is due to the fact that the envoy from China to the kingdoms of the south at that time used the sea route and countries situated farthest from China for seamen were the last to establish with her."

Johnstone suggested the regional duration of king Candrodaya of Anandacandra inscription as 202-229 A.D and was inclined to equate him with Candrasuria of the chronicles. In this Anandacandra inscription the modification for the kings previous to Candrodaya are read ' zealous in doing kindness to the world', 'The able', 'eminent for stoutness',' fair of form' and 'heroic in policy'. Canrodayan and successor were, however, modified as 'approved by the good', ' giving of countless gifts',' want to heaven', and 'eminent in religious practices'. In contrast with the former one the later ones sound a bit religious. This fact also seems to provide us the liability to assume that at the reign of Candrodaya, in the third century A.D., a particular kind of religion had already been introduced in Rakhine.

A large stone slab, probably related the early phase of the Buddhistic introduction to Rakhine, lies close the Anandacandra pillar at the Shithaung pagoda, Mrohaung. On that stone slab, in relief, a couch, a lotus flower and ' dhammacakka' written are found. Lotus flower represents the nativity and 'dhammacakka' the wheel of the law represents the first sermon of the Lord Buddha and were widely used as the symbols of Buddhism in the pre-iconic worship in India. The symbolic worship faded away when the iconic worship got emerged. Those two symbols are the earliest evidences revealing the coming of Buddhism to Rakhine. An inscription consists of three lines on the plinth of an image is found at the Mahamuni, Kyauktaw township, Rakhine. Although almost illegible it is preserved enough to date

The Ye Dharma verse reveals the cream of the teaching of the Buddha. It is very clear that the people who made these stupas and who inscribed the Ye Dharma verses for the posterity professed the type of Buddhism based on the teaching of the Buddha and not on the personality of the Buddha. Again, the word mahasramana in the verse means the Great Monk. By using this word, it is clear that the Buddha was referred to as a Great Monk and not as a God. We have seen a ceti dedicatory inscription from eighth century Vesali. The inscription mentioned one to purify his own mind to attain Nirvana. The three impurities, lobba, dossa and moha should be discarded revealing that the Buddhism practiced at that time was based on the teachings of Buddha. Therefore, we can definitely say that the Buddhism that flourished during this period was neither Tantric Buddhism nor the advanced Mahayana with plenty of Gods and Goddesses. We can infer that the Tantric Buddhism, which is an advanced state of Mahayana Buddhism, never flourished in Arakan.

http://www.arakan.bravehost.com/BuddhistLand.html

Mrauk-U (Myo Haung) is another interesting historical site in Rakhine, fast becoming a tourist attraction. Mrauk-U was founded in 1430 AD and flourished till 1785 as recorded in its history. Known as the Golden City by foreign travelers of the era it was a focus of trade due to its strategic on the coastal region of Bay of Bengal. Many historical sites such as the old palace grounds and ancient pagodas principally Shitthoung Pagoda (Eighty thousand pagodas), the old city of Vesali, the Mahamuni Image of Kyauktaw offers a glimpse into the Rakhine history. Pagoda in Mrauk U A new tourist site which is becoming increasingly more popular in recent years is the old capital of Rakhine (Arakan) called Mrauk-U. Some of the local people refer to it as Myo ( or Mro) Haung, the old city. It was first constructed by the Rakhine King Min_Saw Mon in 1430 AD, and remained its capital for 355 years until 1784 when the Rakhine Kingdom ceased to exist as a separate entity and became an integral part of the Myanmar Kingdom. The Golden City of Mrauk-U became known in Europe as a city of oriental splendor after Friar Sebastian Manrique visited the area for about (8) years between 1629 to 1637 AD and though he was a Portuguese Augustinian missionary he wrote his fascinating "Travels" in Spanish and published it as a book in 1649 and 1653. Father Manrique's vivid account of the coronation of King Thiri_Thudhamma in 1635 and about the Rakhine Court and intrigues of the Portuguese adventurers fired the imagination of later authors, especially after an English translation was published by the Hakluyt Society in 1927 in 2 volumes. In Volume One of this English translation we can read the intriguing account of Rakhine in mid-17th century. Manrique wrote of his astonishment when he was shown a pair of pendant ear-rings, set with priceless rubies as large as a small hen's egg. He said when he beheld these kyauk-nagats he could scarcely fix his eyes on them due to the radiant splendor they cast; he just stood amazed. In the markets also he saw "being sold in abundance, diamonds rubies, sapphires, emeralds, topazes, gold and silver in plates and bars, tin and zinc, which were very difficult to get in his home country. Pagoda in Mrauk U

It was the English author Maurice Collis who made Mrauk-U and Rakhine famous after his book The Land of the Great Image based on Friar Manrique's travels in Arakan, was published in 1942. The Great Image is of course, the Maha Muni Buddha Image which is now in Mandalay, though originally it was made and venerated in this area about 15 miles from Mrauk-U where another Maha Muni Buddha Image flanked by two other Buddha images is now worshipped. You can visit this place also on the hillock called Sirigutta, about (6) miles east of Kyauktaw town. How to get there

About ten years ago it was difficult to travel to this area but you can easily visit Mrauk-U now. From Yangon there are daily flights to Sittway the capital of Rakhine State. There are Travel and Tour Companies in Yangon and Sittway which operate tours to Mrauk-U and the surrounding area. Pagoda in Mrauk U In Sittway you should visit the newly built Rakhine State Cultural Museum and Library and the Buddhist Museum where many interesting antiquities of Rakhine's colorful past are on display. From Sittway to Mrauk-U you can take a boat on the Kaladan River and then go into some of its tributary streams. Mrauk-U, on Thinghanadi creek is only 45 miles from Sittway and the sea coast. It is a very pleasant river journey. If you are visiting in the winter months you can see flocks of wild geese, ducks and other migrating waterfowl. To the east of the old city is the famous Kiccapanadi stream and far away the Lemro River. The city area used to have a network of canals. In Mrauk-U itself you can visit the Archaeological Museum which is near the Palace Site. This site is right in the centre of Mrauk-U which was built in a strategic location by leveling three small hills. Recently the Archaeology Department has been excavating the Palace Site which was occupied by Rakhine Kings for over two hundred years. Even the pagodas are strategically located on hilltops and look like fortresses as indeed they were once used as such in times of enemy intrusion. There are moats, artificial lakes and canals and the whole area could be flooded to deter or repulse attackers. Pagoda in Mrauk U

There are innumerable pagodas and Buddha images all over the old city and the surrounding hills. Some are still being used as places of worship today; many in ruins are now being restored to their original splendor. You should at least visit some; the most famous and well worth seeing are the Shitthaung, the Andaw, the Dukkhan Thein (Sima or Ordination Hall), the Koethaung, the Laymyetnha and the Shwe Daung pagodas. The Shitthaung or "temple of the 80,000 Buddhas" is a fascinating place full of small images, scenes in sculpture of Buddhist stories with the kings and queens, courtiers and common people portrayed in their mediaeval costumes and head-dresses, all frozen in stone throughout the ages. You should take a good torch-light to examine the myriad interesting scenes and figures lining the dark corridors of this temple. You can see some Rakhine men boxing and wrestling, some girls dancing and playing, and then there are also the mythical birds, beasts and half-human celestials and demons. Try and find the figures of both the male and female Vasundhra/ Vasundhari symbolizing the God /Goddess of the Earth. The Shitthaung Pagoda, located about half a mile to the north of the palace site was built by one of the most powerful kings of the Mrauk-U Dynasty, called by the people, Minbargyi, but according to records on inscriptions as King Minbin who reined from 1513 to 1553. The king built this fortress-temple after repulsing a Portuguese attack. The Portuguese mercenaries later served under Rakhine kings. There was also surprisingly an elite corp of Japanese bodyguards protecting the kings of Rakhine. The Andaw (meaning the tooth relic of Buddha) is a pagoda only 86 feet to the north-east of the Shitthaung Pagoda. Built by King Min Hla Raza in 1521 it is said to enshrine the tooth relic received from a Sri Lankan king by King Minbin. This temple is a hollow octagonal building made of pure sandstone blocks; there are two internal concentric passages, with a prayer hall on the east. Like other temples it is on a small hillock. Visitors should see the frescoes giving detailed portrayals of life in the Mrauk-U court; these frescoes are found in Laymyetnha and the Shwe Daung Pagoda. Laymyetnha Pagoda was built by King Min Saw Mon in 1430 AD as one of the original pagodas at the time of the founding of Mrauk-U. The name of the Pagoda means "Four faced" as there are four entrances to this square sandstone structure with a central solid stupa 80 feet high. There are 28 Buddha images as mentioned in the Sambuddha scripture. Shwe Daung pagoda

The Shwe Daung pagoda or the "Golden Hill Pagoda" is also believed to have been built by King Minbin between the years 1531-1553. It is a landmark pagoda as it is the tallest in this area and can be seen as far away as 20 miles from the main Kaladan River. The hill itself is 250 feet high and is about half a mile to the south-east of the Palace Site. It is a solid stupa with a circular base. During the First Anglo-Burmese War, 1824-26, the Myanmar forces built earthen fortifications on this hill and mounted guns which inflicted heavy losses on the British forces. Some of these fortifications can still be seen today. Standing on a plain of rice fields is the Koethaung Pagoda; the name means 90,000 and probably signified the number of Buddha images it was supposed to contain. It was built by King Min Taikkha, the son of King Min Bin who built the Shitthaung or temple of 80,000 images, so the son exceeded the father by 10,000! It is the biggest pagoda in the Mrauk-U area. Like the Shitthaung, this pagoda is also a massive fortress-like structure built with stone walls and terraces. There are 108 smaller pagodas surrounding it, all made of sandstone. With a winding corridor it is like a cave tunnel which you have to traverse until you reach the central chamber. The inner gallery has collapsed and is no longer accessible. There is an octagonal pagoda in the middle surrounded by over one hundred smaller pagodas. Unlike some of the other temples, not only sandstone, but bricks were also used in this pagoda. Apart from the pagodas, visitors should not miss seeing the Ordination Hall, Htukkan Thein, and the exquisite little library the Pitakataik. Htukkan (or Dukkhan) Thein is located about 300 feet to the north-west of Shitthaung Pagoda. Built in 1571 by King Min Phalaung it is on a hillock 30 feet high, with two stone stair ways (8) feet broad on the east and south. Ordination Hall in Mrauk-U

No longer used as an Ordination Hall, it is now one of the well-known pagodas of Mrauk-U. There is a long vaulted passageway which leads to the central shrine room which is 15 feet in height. This room is said to be the place where the Buddhist Archbishop used to sit to discuss religious affairs with Senior Monks. See the seated stone ladies preserving in sculpture the ancient hair-styles, among the many other interesting figures. There are also 140 niches with Buddha images. The little library or Pitaka-taik, the Repository for the Buddhist scriptures was built in 1591 also by King Min Phalaung. It measures only 14 feet from east to west, 10 feet from north to south and is only 9 feet in height. Built entirely of stone there are lovely designs on the outer walls making it look like a tiny jeweled casket shaped like a blooming lotus. There were 48 libraries in Mrauk-U but only this one is preserved, though it is sometimes obscured by thickets of bushes and partly covered by moss and weeds which flourish in the 200" of annual rainfall in the region. This library is reputed to have housed 30 sets of the Buddhist Tipitaka which King Narapatigyi (1638-1645) received from Sri Lanka. Unfortunately it acquired an unpleasant appellation due to its dark windowless interior. It is now known as Chin-kite library, Chin-kite meaning mosquito-bite. The Rakhine people say that Chin-kite is a Myanmar mispronunciation of the Rakhine word Khraung kaik, the name of the city wall which is close to the north of the library. If you have difficulty in finding this library asks for the Htupayon Pagoda as it is just north of this pagoda. The artificial, man-made lakes named Anomakan and Letsekan on the southern part of Mrauk-U were once part of the defense system. They are now peaceful havens for visitors as well as for the local people, and for animals, birds and fish. Letsekan is (3) miles in length and half a mile wide. Some of the old city walls can also be seen. Mrauk-U

The Portuguese and other Europeans were given a separate quarter at Mrauk U, only about half a mile west of the palace site. The place is called Daingripet and this place for the European settlement is on the other bank of Aungdat creek. The old church built by Father Manrique, now in ruins, can still be seen in this place. It is near the Daingri tank built by King Ba Saw Phyu (1459-1482). Rakhine has other historical sites which are earlier than Mrauk U, at Vesali, only 6 miles to the north, and at Launggret a little further away, but easily reached by car in about half an hour. If you are interested in spectacular places of historical interest and natural beauty Mrauk-U is the place. There are now comfortable hotels and guest houses where you can stay while exploring this ancient land, which was once a seat of oriental splendor. tourism.goldenlandpages

The great outstanding feature in the history of Arakan is the account of Buddha's sojourn in this country and of his supervision over the casting of his image. The story of his seven day's visit with five hundred Rahandas--- his lengthly discourse pregnant with prophesy delivered on the top of the hill opposite the town of Kyauktaw-- His Journey into the city of Dynnyawaddi at the request of King Sanda Thurya--- the casting of the image by men and gods, have been very clearly set fourth by the able researches of the late Dr. Forchammer and need hardly be mentioned again in the present sketch. The Mahamuni tradition is the oldest of the kind we have. It permeates the whole religious history of Arakan and the images that at present sanctify a thousand temples and pagodas in this country are the replicas of the first great and only faithful copy of the Master.

Interesting as all these facts may appear there is however one great flaw which defies any attempt at reasonable explanation. King Sanda Thurya ascended the throne of Arakan in 146 A.D_ all available records are pretty well clear on this point. If we take 483 B.C as the date of Buddha's death there is a very large gap of over six hundred years between the two events, viz:_ his sojourn in Arakan and his death at Kusinara. This is a very big thing to explain away and judging from the extreme paucity of documents that treat of those far-away days. I am inclined to think that the problem is one likely to be added to the long list of unsolved riddles of the universe. It is true books belonging to this country have a fatal defect, that they represent facts and beliefs at the time they were written, or acquire the from in which we now find them, without much reference to facts at the time at which they are supposed

to have happened. Besides this Burmese books especially bear unmistakable signs of being treated, that is to say, they often take up an important event, enlarge upon it, and then relate how it was prophesied_ generally by Buddha_many centuries before.

In spite of these adverse peculiarities of the East I entirely agree with the learned Doctor that the Mahamuni Tradition is not an after-thought. It is genuinely old and was implicitly believed in by successive generations that came after it. Kings of Arakan, even after they had shifted their capitals to various other places, always recognised it as a sacred duty to visit it from time to time and generally made it the occasion for great religious feasts of charity. In such cases they invariably left some votive offering, may be a small shrine or an image, as a memento of their distinguished visit. On the other hand it is not my purpose here to try and reconcile this great discrepancy in time as I am convinced of the utter futility of the task. The very fact that neither Buddha nor any of his five hundred Rahandas who accompanied him into Arakan ever made mention of this unique event in the many subsequent discourses delivered in India is sufficient to tempt one to lay down the pen so far as this point is concerned.

My scheme in the present work is simply to trace the history of this famous image from the time of its installation on a small hill close to the ancient city of Dannyawaddi till it was finally carried away to Mandalay by Bodawpaya of Burma . So this is really a continuation of the story begun by Forchammer but in which I propose dealing with principal events only. After the sacred image was finished and suitably installed it was allowed to remain undisturbed for a period of over nine centuries. During that time it became the religious centre of the kingdom and all its neighboring states. Its fame spread far and wide and it so worked on the envy of the Burmans that much of the early wars between these two people were actuated by the sole desire on the part of Burmese kings to remove the image into their country.

In 1078 A.D.Min Bhi-lu of Arakan was killed by a noble who usurped the throne. Min Re-baya the heir apparent fled with his family and took shelter at the court of Kyan-sittha of Pagan. The fugitive prince remained in exile for twenty five years during which time a son was born to Min Re-baya and is known in history as Let-yar-min-nan. It is true that Kyan-sittha promised to restore the royal fugitive to the Arakanese throne but the lack of suitable opportunity prevented that monarch from redeeming his promise. On the death of Min-Re-baya Alaung-si-thu who had already succeeded his grandfather determined to place Let-yar-min-nan on the throne of Arakan. To carry out this object he sent 100,000 Pyus and an equal number of Talaings both by land and sea into Arakan.

There was some show of stub-born resistance at first which the more disciplined troops of Burma gradually but surely overcame. Thus Let-ya-min-Nan came unto his own in 1103 A.D. and as the Pyus were instrumental in bringing this about he is also known to the Arakanese as ysLwmodef;rif; (the king created by the 100,000 Pyus). When these soldiers had accomplished their task and just on the eve of their departure for Burma they visited the shrine of Mahamuni. There they found it so richly stored with gems and gold that overcoming all religious scruples they began to despoil the temple of all its vast wealth. From the image itself the Pyus scooped out the greater portion of the back, the Talaings cut off the whole right leg and carried away these treasures into their country__ a distinct fulfillment of Gotama's dicta.

When Let-yar-min-nan came to Arakan the capital was Ping-tsa. On his astrologers advising him that the city was no longer fit for occupation because all its good fortune had departed, he found the new city of Parin. Fifty years after this Da-tha-raza ascended the throne. The new king was powerful and just and the country enjoyed general peace and prosperity. Following the example of all pious kings who went before him he decided to visit Mahamuni. His Ministers were sent in advance to make the necessary preparations for his stay there. But they return with the information that the temple could not be found. He then entrusted these men with his personal jewel instructed them to give away as reward to any person or persons who could direct them to sacred spot. After much trouble and by the assistance of two Mros they found the place__ the men being rewarded as ordered by the king. When news of the discovery reached the royal ears he immediately set out for the place with his entire court. The image was found in the ground buried up to the neck. The right leg and the greater part of the back were missing. The shrine was completely destroyed by fire. The king at once saw the exposed nature of the place. He knew that its general isolation among the hills was the too frequent cause of the shrine being desecrated by the wild tribes who made periodic visits of plunder into these parts. He therefore conveyed the image by water into the ancient city of Dinnyawaddy.

The chronicles tell us that invitations were then issued to all the neighbouring kings and princes to visit Arakan and share with him the supreme merit to be acquired by undertaking the entire repairs of the most sacred image and shrine. The gathering of ruling princes was a representative one. First they repaired the image itself by supplying the missing parts. Then they erected the shrine on which were lavished all the skill, energy and resources they could command. In the building of the surrounding walls the work was proportionately divided between the different races that were present. Thus some were asked to carry out the work on the east of the shrine, some to the south and so on. The temple and the walls were decorated with exquisite carving. The latter contained human figures representing all the races of the earth. There is no doubt about it that this second building of Mahamuni was a great historic event. What little is left of it at the present day amply proves it. The spot selected was a small hill at the north east corner of the city. The nine kutis of treasure left buried by king Sanda Thurya was also unearthed, removed and buried again at the northern end of this hill. The stone slab placed on the mouth of the pit was so immense that a thousand men, say the chronicles, would not even be sufficient to shift it from the place. The whole thing was finished in seventy-one days.

Several races undertook to visit the temple once in every three months for the purpose of carrying out such minor repairs as were considered necessary from time to time. But some of the tributary tribes were given definite work to perform and were required to always leave behind certain persons to guard the place. The details of the allotment of such specific duties were also recorded in stone tablets at the four cardinal points. These records no longer exits in their usual places though I am told they were there until quite recently by an authority of no mean repute.

In the closing scene of its variegated history Bodawpaya of Burma comes in__ a fit character for a fit occasion. After his final conquest and so- called pacification “solitudinem faciunt pacem appellant” he directed the famous image to be conveyed into Burma. This was accomplished in the year 1785 A.D.. The excess of patriotic fervor led some people a few years ago to declare that the real image was lost in the creek close to the site in the course of its removal and that the soldiers fearing the king’s wrath took away a substitute. Attractive as this country proclaims the image that now adorns the Arakan pagoda at Mandalay to be the genuine one.

It will be seen that the present account deals with the principal events only. But it must not be supposed that during the long interval between these epochs the image and the shrine were allowed to remain in peace. The frontier tribes such as the Chins, the Mros and the Saks periodically descended from their mountain homes and harassed the kingdom whenever it was known the ruler of the country was weak or incapable. On such occasions they always made it a point to visit the shrine and after taking away all the riches it contained they invariably set fire to it. Whenever this happened the then reigning king would fourth with rebuild it and make good the loss. In the chronicles this occurs with painful regularity.


What seems to me to be rather a curious fact is that even at the time of Da-tha-raza, towards the middle of the 12th century, this well-known temple and image could not be easily found. At the present day none of us has any idea of the original site though the chronicles describe the place pretty clearly. I think there are two reasons to account for this. In the first the names of hills and creeks in familiar use in those days are no longer employed now; and the daily occupation of all our time in western education and per suits has so alienated our interests that it has become almost impossible for us to identify the old names with the present ones. Secondly the abundant rainfall so favors the rapid growth of vegetation that the few years of neglect is sufficient to entirely cover up any structure with dense jungle. But whatever the true reason may be it would be tremendously worth our while to discover this spot as there is no knowing what interesting archaeological finds we may come across.

By U SAN THA AUNG

The “Fat Monk” Image

According to Gordon luce:, writing in his book “Old Pagan” the Fat Monk image is a widespread and ancient type of image frequently found in old relic chambers at such well known sites as Sriksetra, Rangoon, Pegu, Mandalay, Pagan and so on. The Fat Monk is invariably depicted with a bulging belly, always sitting crosslegged, usually in padmasana, either in dhyana mudra, or with both hands supporting his belly. He is often depicted sitting on a double lotus throne, sometimes on a bare pedestal, and on rare occasions, with a back-slab behind him His statuettes, always small (up to 9 inches height), are made from many kinds of material including stone, bronze, silver-gilt, bronze-gilt, plaster, terracotta, and even unburnt clay, sometimes lacquered and gilded.

Luce's book “Old Pagan” contains pictures of ten different images of the Fat Monk, together with an account concerning them. Luce raised the question of who the Fat Monk could have been, and tried to answer it with some conjectures of his own and of others. We read therefore that Charles Duroiselle first took the Fat Monk to be the pot-bellied Jambhala or Kubera, Lord of the Yakasa and as such, the god of wealth. He is later said to have accepted the idea that the monk might be Kaccayana monk, a scholar and the author of the first Pali Grammer. We are also given U Mya's view that these figures probably represented Gavampati, the patron saint of the Mons. Since Luce could not be sure about whom the Fat Monk represented, he merely stated that he leant towards U Mya's opinion, giving his reasons for his stand.

In 1922, one small stone image of such a Fat Monk was found in Arakan. It was found by a taung-ya cultivator from among the ruins of an old brick pagoda at panzeemyaung phyar about three miles east of the old brick pagoda at panzeemyaung phyar about three miles east of the old Vesali site. The image is 4.4 inches high, 2.4 inches wide and 0.9 inch thick. The Fat Monk is depicted in a sitting posture, with his right foot placed on his left thigh. He is shown sitting on a lotus throne, with a back-slab behind him. The back-slab is decorated with flower petals around the border. The monk is in dhyana mudra with his left hand placed on the right hand, and he has a piece of cloth wrapped around the chest, with one end of the piece hanging down over the left shoulder.

See picture. Go

It appears that the image is no longer in its original form. This tampering with the original was due to the thought-less acts of process of beautification set in motion through good intentions and pious impulses, the net result was that it ruined the original art. Fortunately, however, the backside of the back-slab has not been tampered with, and still possesses a line of inscription in the Brahmi script: See Plate 9. According to the palaeographical consideration of the script, the image can be dated around the beginning of the Christian era. The line can be translated as Saccakaparibajaka (ji) na.

Saccakaparibajaka was a Nirgrantha Jina ascetic. He lived in Vaisali during the lifetime of the Buddha. He was a philosopher and teacher. He was said to have challenged Mahavira and the Buddha to a discussion with him about whose philosophy was the best. We are Buddha and acknowledge the Buddha's superiority. In Dr.Malalasekera's Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, Saccaka was mentioned as one of those who became a follower of the Buddha.

This Fat Monk discovered in Arakan, whose identity was revealed in the inscription at the back of the back-slab, has now enlightened us regarding the Fat Monks found in other parts of Burma, as has already been mentioned by Gordon Luce.

http://arakanlibrary.tripod.com/TheFatMonkImage

By U SAN THA AUNG

GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION

Arakan State is situated between proper on the east and Bangladesh on the west. It extends from Lat. 21˚ 20' N at its northernmost limit to Lat. 16˚ N at Pagoda Point, its southern extremity. From west to east it extends from the Naaf River at long. 92˚ 20' E to the crestline of the Arakan Yoma at long. 95˚ 20' E. See Map I and II (pictures). Go

The latitudinal and longitudinal extensions given above do not give a true idea of the present day Arakan, because it is mostly a narrow coastal strip. The only area where there is space to speak of is the area around Akyab which formerly was the centre or nucleus of the ancient Arakanese kingdom. See Map III (picture). Go

The north-south extension (latitudinal spread) of the present day Arakan State is 360 miles as the crow flies, but in the Akyab district, the cradle, so to speak, of Arakanese civilization, the extent is only about 160 miles or so. The east-west extension is even less At the broadest part, that is the northern end, the extent from the Bay of Bengal of the crestline of the Arakan Yoma is about 100 miles. Further south, about the latitude of Sandoway, the breadth is only about 25 miles. The coastal strip continues narrowing down still further to the south until it ends at a point, known as Pagoda Point. The present area of the Arakan State is 14,200 square miles.

In time past, the limits of the old Arakanese kingdoms have varied according to the prowess of the ruling king, In times of greatness, the area of the kingdom of Arakan has covered twice the area of the present day State. There were times when Arakan controlled the Dacca area as far afield as Mushidabad. The Chittagong area was most of the time under Arakanese rule till 1666 A.D., when the Mogul Emperor annexed the area because of the Shah Shuja affair, Chittagong is an Arakanese word signifying “the head of the army” or a fort.

http://arakanlibrary.tripod.com/GeographicalDescrip

According to almost all Arakanese chronicles, it is asserted that the Mahamuni Image was cast during the reign of King Candasuriya of Arakan in the middle of six century B.C. when the Lord Buddha in his life time made his sojourn to Dhanyawadi, the ancient city of Arakan .1 ( the old site of Dhanyawadi is situated on the focus of East longitude 93º 3´ and North Latitude 20º 52´). 

However the modern historians believe it may have been in the second century A.D.2 Among the several places where King Ashoka of India (273-236 B.C) had sent the Buddhist missionaries, it included the name "Mahinsaka". 3 Mahinsaka is the ancient name of Arakan.4 In the Rakhaing Medhapinnya Mawguan Lunga, it was composed such as that Rakkha Pura (Arakan) either possesses the name "Mahinsaka".

The Indian people especially of Bengal call the Arakanese as "Magh" or "Mogh".5 Magh may have also been derived from Mahinsaka/Mahka/Makh which sounds "Magh" or "Mogh".6 In Bengali literature, the vowel (a) sounds as (o). The Bengali people may have called Arakanese as Magh/Mogh or Maghad in sense of the people from Mahinsaka (Arakan).

Mahamuni Image and Its Long Events

In 81 A.D. the King Nagarasinda of Thayekhittaya (Burma) had made his journey to Arakan to worship the Mahamuni image.1 The King Suriya who ascended the throne of Arakan in 272 A.D had greatly devoted to it.2

Prince Mahataing Candra, founder of Chittagong, son of King Suriya (272-327 A.D) built a new temple at Mahamuni by the approval of his father. Before the accomplishment of it, the King Suriya had passed away and his son, prince Mahataing Candra, succeeded the throne in 327 A.D. He made a golden crown embellished with rubies and offered it to the Mahamuni image. During his rule in Arakan the Mahatheras from Ramanya (Mon) and Sri Lanka made the pilgrimage to the Mahamuni pagoda.3

He was succeeded by his son Suriya Candra. During the rule of King Suriya Candra in Arakan, the pedestal of the image was burnt down. He substituted it with a new one of marble stone and renovated the temple with the teak wood. After completing it he performed a great merit ceremony.4

In 776 A.D. during the reign of King Pe Phru in Arakan, the alien from the North had settled in the east of the hill-site of Mahamuni Shrine. They dug the treasure stored under the pedestal of the image and set fire the building of Gandakudi (The location where the Mahamuni image was housed).5

In 980 A.D. another settlement could be found from the wild northern part of the Arakan and they have occupied the area of Mahamuni. They tried to bring the image to their place and when it was unsuccessful they took the treasure and melted the statue. When they found it all in vain, the image was left behind. Thus the Mahamuni image could not be found out for three years and five months.6 King Anawratha, founder of the first Burmese Dynasty in Burma, ( who ascended the throne of Pagan in 1044 A.D.), himself came to Arakan and tried to bring the image to Burma. Later he had given up his previous plan and constructed the new temple at the shrine and came back to Pagan.7

Athinkhara Raza who became king of Pincha Dynasty of Arakan in 1068 A.D. rebeautified Mahamuni shrine again.8

In 11 century A.D in time of King Foonthan of Pincha in Arakan, the King of Pagan sent fifty thousand warriors, five hundred ministers and a Mahathera. They encamped at Cetootaya and begged the permission from the Arakanese king for the construction of a new temple at the Mahamuni. After getting the agreement from the King Foonthan of Arakan, they built a new Gandakudi and planted the Sanga trees at four locations of the Mahamuni."9

In 1103 A.D. the Paganians came to Arakan to confer Lakkyamunnan the throne of Arakan when it was in absence of king. They destroyed Mahamuni images and cut off the legs and hollowed the back in hunt for the treasure.10 Mahamuni was being lost till six successors of Arakanese kings Lakkyamunnan, Thiharaza, Thakyawangree, Thakyawannge to Koliya in Arakan. The King Datharaza who succeeded the throne of Parin Dynasty of Arakan in 1123 A.D. tried to search for the lost image and found out it by the help of Mro Lord Rahoungla in the wild sinking up to the neck under the ground, the right hand broken and a big hole on the back. He brought it back to old Dhanyawadi and placed it on its former Katanyuta Hill.11

King Ngahnaloon who succeeded the throne of Nerinsara in 1246 A.E. was the last King of Taung Ngoo Dynasty of Arakan. During his rule in Arakan, the temple of Mahamuni was ruined by a great storm.12 In time of King Alaumaphru, successor of King Ngahnaloon (1246-1250 A.D.) and founder of Laungrek Dynasty (1250 to 1430 A.D.), the temple of Mahamuni had been rebuilt and it was burnt down again in 1354 A.D.13

King Mong Saw Mon (1406-1433 A.D.) founded Mrauk U in 1430 A.D. He paved the road from Mrauk U to Mahamuni and dug several ponds and lakes along the way. In 1439 A.D. King Mong Khaki (Ali Khan), the successor of Mong Saw Mon brought the Pitaka from Sri Lanka and offered them to the Mahamuni.14

King Mong Ba or Mong Bun (Sri Suryachandra Dharm), (Jobouk Shah) (1531-1553 A.D.) made a great merit on the conquest of twelve towns of Bengal in 1536 A.D. He cast thousands of Buddha images resemble to Mahamuni and constructed many shrines and pagodas across Arakan, enshrined the images therein.15 King Mong Razagree (1593-1612 A.D.), grand son of Mong Ba renovated the temple of Mahamuni and celebrated a one-thousand-monks ordination ceremony at the Mahamuni temple.16

During the reign of Sandathudhamma (1652-1674 A.D.) the temple and Wunmana Kyi (rice store) were burnt down in 1647 A.D. The King constructed a new temple in 1658 A.D. and finished it in that era.17

In 1674 A.D. the son of King Sandathu-dhamma, King Ukkabala succeeded the throne and made the pilgrimage to Mahamuni. In time of King Waradhamma who became king of Arakan in 1684 A.D., many monasteries and Uppasampada temples (where monk-ordination is performed) were build around the Mahamuni pagoda and eight thousand monks were ordained within one year.18 In 1710 A.D., the Burmese king Thirimaha Thuradhamma had sent two missionaries of Weluthara and Sandataraza and they asked permission for the construction of a new temple at Mahamuni whereas the king of Arakan denied it.19

In 1718 A.D. the palace of Mrauk U, the temple of Mahamuni, other 8000 monasteries and 800 Uppasampada Temples were built by the king of Arakan.20

In 1761 and 1762 A.D. there was a pair of earthquake in Arakan and the roof and the walls of the temple were collapsed down. In 1764 A.D. the lord of Rembree succeeded the throne of Arakan by the name of Abayamaharaza. In Pratho (10th month of Arakanese Era, January) of the same year, the main temple of Mahamuni was burnt down and he reconstructed it in 1127 A.E. (1765 A.D).21

During the reign of King Sandasumanaraza of Arakan, the king of Eve of Burma, Sinphyu Shin (Lord of white elephant), sent a delegation of pilgrimage led by Surinchakka to Arakan and they arrived at Mahamuni on Saturday of 8th waxing of Tawthalunn (6th month of A.E. September) in 1136 A.E. (1774 A.D.).22

King Mahathamadaraza ascended the throne in 1784 A.D. and two years latter in 1784 there was a great flood of Gaiccapanadi (Kaladan river) which lasted for seven days. Among the people who sought shelter at the Mahamuni temple, the three women had given birth to three babies by the same time and a giant log reached onto the pedestal of Mahamuni Image. At night the people could hear the odd crises and sounds of trumpets and see the bad omens.

On hearing such odd events, King Maha-thamadaraza came to the Mahamuni on Thursday of 14th waning of Waso in 1146 A.E. (1784 A.D.). On Saturday of 7th waning of Pratho in 1146 A.E., on 30th December 1784, the Burmese King Bodaw Maung Wyne occupied Arakan and took Mahamuni Image, and it reached at the Sagaing harbour on 2nd waning after Kasone full-moon in 1147 A.E. (1785 A.D.).23
Mandalay Mahamyatmuni pagoda is the great Mahamuni Image of Arakan.

Khaing Kyaw Kyaw

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INDEX

1. Tun Shwe Khine (M.A.): "History of Mahamuni" (in Burmese), 1991.
2. Dr. Qanungo: "History of Chittagong" (in English), 1986.
3. Ahn Maung (M.A.): "2500 years of Buddhism" (in Burmese).
4. However, the historians of India have identified "Mahinsaka" as present "Mysore" of India. Kyaw Zan tha (M.A.): "Buddhism in Arakan before Yedhamma" (Rakhine Tazaung Magazine), 1980, p.20.
5. "Magh", nowadays, has the notorious sense as "Pirate" because the"Magh" or "Rakhaing" who were clever at the maritime warfare had often raided "Bengal" by the sea-route during the glorious age of golden "Mrauk U".
6. a) More research works should be done on this view point.
b) "Magh" is allied to Sanskrit word "Magh" which means "Superior".
(Dr. Qanungo: "History of Chittagong", 1986.)
c) Some scholars believe the word "Magh" is a derivation from "Maghada" of India.
(San Tha Aung (M.A): The Mog or the Magh or the Arakanese in Bangladesh.)
(Chittagong Gazetteer (Government of Bangladesh), 1974.)
d) "Magh", in Bengali Literature, is pronounced "Mogh". So is "Mahinsaka" pronounced as "Mohinsoko" and may be corrupted into "Mohinsoko/ Mohko/ Mokh/ Mogh.
1. a) Chan Htwan Oung: The Mahamuni Shrine in Arakan, J.B.R.S. (Journal of Burma Research Society).
b) Oo Kala Maharazawin (in Burmese), Vol. III, p.104.
c) Hmannanrazawin (in Burmese), Vol. III, p.104.
2. Sandamalalungara, Rakhaing Razawunthaik-kyan (in Burmese), Vol.III, p.104.
3. a) Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan, Vol. I, p.286.
b) Dr. Forchammer; The Mahamuni Pagoda, p.6.
4. Kyauk Roe Razawun, (Palm scripture in Arakanese)
5. a) Dr. Forchammer, The Mahamuni Pagoda, p.6.
b) U Nyo Mya: Koombaung Shapoondaw, p.154.
c) Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan, Vol. I, p.307.
d) Arakanese Princess Yaingcrong (Hantha-wadi Print) (in Arakanese), Stanza-14.
6. Chan Htwan Oung, Mahamuni Shrine in Arakan. J.B.R.S., P.263.
7. Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan: Vol. I, p.316
8. Dr. Forchammer: Arakan, p.6.
9. a) Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan: Vol. I, p.323.
b) Dr. Forchammer: Arakan, p.6.
10. a) Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan: Vol. I, p.316
b) San Shwe Bu: The Story of Mahamuni, J.B.R.S., P.226
11. a) Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan: Vol. I, p.130, 323, 329, 331.
b) San Shwe Bu: The Story of Mahamuni, J.B.R.S., P.226, 227, 228
c) Dhanyawadi Razawunthaikkyan, p.118.
d) Dr. Forchammer: Mahamuni shrine in Arakan, p.265.
e) Rakhaing Sgabre Razawun (Palm scripture in Arakanese), "Za" Sheet.
f) Sara Ngame Razawun and Rhihoung Razawun (Manuscript copy from palm scripture).
12. a) Dhanyawadi Razawunthaikkyan, p.120.
b) Rakhaing Sgabre Razawun, (Palm Scripture), "Zau" Sheet.
13. a) Dr. Forchammer: Mahamuni Pagoda, p.6.
b) U Nyo Mya: Koombaung Shapoondaw, "Mahamuni History", p.155.
14. Rakhaing Sgabre Razawun (Palm scripture in Arakanese), "Lau" Sheet.
15. Ibid. (Twelve towns of Bengal are (1) Gatapalan (2) Kana (3) Chittagong (4) Padikhara (5) Tilinga (6) Comilla (7) Barisal (8) Moksuja (9) Dacca (10) Ganga-Sagara (11) Rounphru and (12) Sylhet.
16. Ibid.
17. Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan, Vol. I., p.241.
18. U Nyo Mya: Mahamuni History, p.155.
19. Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan, Vol. I., p.243
20. a) Rakhaing Sgabre Razawun (Palm Scripture), "Taw" Sheet.
b) Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan, Vol. I, p.244.
c) Dhanyawadi Razawunthaikkyan, Vol. I, p.277.
21. a) Rakhaing Sgabre Razawun, (Palm Scripture), "Htan" Sheet.
b) Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan, Vol. I, p.270.
c) Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan, Vol. I, p.276, 279.
22. Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan, Vol. II, p.276, 279.
23. Ibid.
24. Arakanese Year (A.E.) English Year:
1. Thanku 1. April
2. Kasone 2. May
3. Nanyone 3. June
4. Waso 4. July
5. Wakhaung 5. August
6. Tawthalunn 6. September
7. Wakywat 7. October
8. Tansaungbone 8. November
9. Nattaw 9. December
10. Pratho 10. January
11. Taboohtwe 11. February
12. Taboung 12. March
Note: The Arakanese months are not fixed with English months 

every year as mentioned in the table.
*( A.E. = Arakanese Era 

 

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